Tajik people

This article is about the Central Asian Persians known as Tajiks. Refer also to Persian people. For other uses, see Tajiks (disambiguation).
Tajiks
(تاجیک Тоҷик)
8 Famous Tajik.png

1st row: Ismail Samani • Rudaki • Abu Rayhan Biruni • Avicenna
2nd row: Al-Khwārizmī • Rumi • Emomalii Rahmon • Hammasa Kohistani
Total population
ca. 20 to 21 million
Regions with significant populations
 Afghanistan
        (varying estimates)		 6,900,000
7,900,000		 [1]
[2]
 Tajikistan 6,000,000 [3]
 Uzbekistan
    (suggestive estimates)		 1,400,000
7-9,000,000		 [4]
[5]
 Pakistan 1,220,000 [6]
 Iran 500,000 [7]
 Russia 120,000 [8]
 Germany 90,000 [9]
 Qatar 87,000
 United States 52,000 [10]
 Kyrgyzstan 47,500 [11]
 China 41,028
 [12]
 Canada 15,870
 [13]
Languages

Persian
varieties of Dari and Tajiki
Religion

Islam (predominantly Sunni (Hanafi), with Shi'a (Twelver and Ismaili) minorities)

Tajik (Persian: تاجيک Tājīk; Tajik: Тоҷик) is a general designation for a wide range of Persian-speaking peoples of Iranian origin,[14] with traditional homelands in present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern Uzbekistan. Smaller numbers also live in Iran and Pakistan; they are mostly refugees from Afghanistan.[15]

The Tajiks are in terms of language, culture, and history closely related to the Persian-speakers of Iran.

As a self-designation, the term Tajik, which earlier on had been more or less pejorative, has become acceptable only during the last decades, particularly as a result of Soviet administration in Central Asia.[14] Alternative names for the Tajiks are Fārsī (Persian), Fārsīwān (Persian-speaking), and Dīhgān (cf. Tajik: Деҳқон, Dehqon, literally "farmer or settled villager", in a wider sense "settled" in contrast to "nomadic").[16]

The Tajiks of China, although known by the name Tajik, speak Eastern Iranian languages and are distinct from Persian Tajiks.[17][18]

Contents

History

Further information: Samanid Empire
Monument of Amir Ismail Samani who ruled the area comprising of modern-day Afghanistan, Iran and Tajikistan and who propagated Sunni Islam deep into Central Asia.

The Tajiks trace their ancestry to the [Eastern Iranian]-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians, and Parthians, - the southwestern Iranian language, today known as 'Farsi' in Iran and Afghanistan. The 'Tajiks' adoption of the now dominant Persian language (albeit in a distinct Tajiki form), a Western Iranian language is believed to have as its root cause, the dominance of the Persian empire in the region during the Achaemenid and Sassanid dynasties. The Persian language, and particularly Tajiki, contain numerous words from Sogdian, Parthian and other Iranian languages of ancient Central Asia. Following the Arab conquest of Persia, many Persians, after conversion to Islam, entered Central Asia as military forces and settled in the conquered lands. As a result of these waves of Persian migration (Zoroastrian and Muslim) over the course of more than 200 years, the Tajiks have also ethnic Persian ancestry in addition to their East-Iranian ancestry. Cultural dissemination through Persian literature also helped to establish the new language, as well as intermittent military dominance. According to Richard Nelson Frye, a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian migration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians along with East-Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of modern Tajiks.[19] In later works Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication Frye explains that many "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them."[20]

The geographical division between the eastern and western Iranians is often considered historically and currently to be the desert Dasht-e Kavir, situated in the center of the Iranian plateau.

Origin of the term

Samanid Empire is considered as the first Tajik state
Tajik Family

Another suggestion is that "Tajik" is a word of Turko-Mongol[21] origin and means (literally) Non-Turk[22]. The 17th century Persian dictionary Farhang Burhan Qati' (فرهنگ برهان قاطع) by Muhammad Husayn ibn Khalaf Tabrizi also defines it as "non-Arab" and "non-Turk". It may have the same root[23] as the word Tat which is used by Turkic-speakers for the Iranian-speaking population of the Caucasus. In a historical context, it is synonymous with Iranian[24] and particularly with Persian. Since the Turko-Mongol conquest of Central Asia, Persian-speakers in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Iran have been identified as Tajiks. The term is mainly used as opposed to "Turk" and "Mongol". "Tajik" in Central Asia is used to refer to peoples that still speak an Iranian language, including both Tajiki-speaking Tajiks, and the Pamiri peoples, also known as Garcha or Mountain Tajiks. The origin of the name Tajik has been embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia.[25]. Others believe it is of Turkic origin, as stated above.

History of the name

First mentioned by the Uyghur historian Mahmoud Al-Kāshgharī, Tajik is an old Turkic expression referring to all Persian-speaking peoples of Central Asia. From the 11th century on, it came to be applied principally to all East-Iranians, and later specifically to Persian-speakers.[24] It is hard to establish the use of the word before the Turkic- and Mongol conquest of Central Asia, and since at least the 15th century it has been used by the region's Iranian population to distinguish themselves from the Turks. Persians in modern Iran who live in the Turkic-speaking areas of the country, also call themselves Tajik, something remarked upon in the 15th century by the poet Mīr Alī Šer Navā'ī.[26]

Tajik in medieval literature

The word Tajik is extensively used in Persian literature and poetry, always as a synonym for Persian. The Persian poet Sa'adi, for example, writes:

“ شاید که به پادشه بگویند
'ترک تو بریخت خون تاجیک'
Šāyad ki ba pādšāh bigōyand
Turk-i tu birēxt xūn-i Tāǰīk
It's appropriate to tell the King,
Your Turk shed the blood of Tajik
 ”

The oldest known reference of this usage of the word Tajik in Persian literature, however, can be found in the writings of Djalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, himself being an Persian-speaker - and thus a "Tajik" - from present-day Afghanistan.[27]

Location

A Tajik man from Tajikistan, wearing a traditional hat

The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, as well as in northern and western Afghanistan, though there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a substantial minority in Uzbekistan, as well as in overseas communities. Historically, the ancestors of the Tajiks lived in a larger territory in Central Asia than now.

Afghanistan

The Central Intelligence Agency estimates that 27% of the population in Afghanistan is Tajik.[1] They predominate four of the largest cities in Afghanistan (Kabul, Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Ghazni) and make up the largest ethnic group in the northern and western provinces of Balkh, Takhar, Badakhshan, Parwan, Panjshir, Kapisa, Baghlan, Ghor, Badghis and Herat. In addition, large pockets of Tajiks live in all other cities and provinces in Afghanistan.

In Afghanistan, the Tajiks do not organize themselves by tribes and refer to themselves by the region, province, city, town, or village they are from; such as Badakhshani, Baghlani, Mazari, Panjsheri, Kabuli, Herati, etc.[28] Although in the past, some non-Pashto speaking tribes were identified as Tajik, for example the Furmuli.[29][30]

Tajikistan

Demographic map of Tajikistan

Today, Tajiks comprise around 79.9% of the population of Tajikistan.[3] This number includes speakers of the Pamiri languages, including Wakhi and Shughni, and the Yaghnobi people who in the past were considered by the government of the Soviet Union nationalities separate from the Tajiks. In the 1926 and 1937 Soviet censuses the Yaghnobis and Pamiri language speakers were counted as separate nationalities. After 1937 these groups were required to register as Tajiks.[31]

Uzbekistan

View of the Registan in Samarkand- Although the second largest city of Uzbekistan, it is predominantly a Tajik populated city, along with Bukhara

In Uzbekistan the Tajiks are the largest part of the population of the ancient cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, and are found in large numbers in the Surxondaryo Province in the south and along Uzbekistan's eastern border with Tajikistan. According to official statistics (2000), Surxondaryo Province accounts for 20.4% of all Tajiks in Uzbekistan, with another 24.3% in Samarqand and Bukhara provinces.[32]

Official statistics in Uzbekistan state that the Tajik community comprises 5% of the nation's total population.[4] However, these numbers do not include ethnic Tajiks who, for a variety of reasons, choose to identify themselves as Uzbeks in population census forms.[33] During the Soviet "Uzbekization" supervised by Sharof Rashidov, the head of the Uzbek Communist Party, Tajiks had to choose either stay in Uzbekistan and get registered as Uzbek in their passports or leave the republic for the less developed agricultural and mountainous Tajikistan.[34] It is only in the last population census (1989) that the nationality could be reported not according to the passport, but freely declared on the basis of the respondent's ethnic self-identification.[35] This had the effect of increasing the Tajik population in Uzbekistan from 3.9% in 1979 to 4.7% in 1989. Subjective expert estimates suggest that Tajiks may make up 20%- 30% of Uzbekistan's population.[5][36]

Kazakhstan

Tajik Girl
Tajik family

According to the 1999 population census, there were 26,000 Tajiks in Kazakhstan (0.17% of the total population), about the same number as in the 1989 census.

Kyrgyzstan

According to official statistics, there were about 47,500 Tajiks in Kyrgyzstan in 2007 (0.9% of the total population), up from 42,600 in the 1999 census and 33,500 in the 1989 census.

Turkmenistan

According to the last Soviet census in 1989, there were 3,149 Tajiks in Turkmenistan, or less than 0.1% of the total population of 3.5 million at that time. The first population census of independent Turkmenistan conducted in 1995 showed 3,103 Tajiks in a population of 4.4 million (0.07%), most of them (1,922) concentrated in the eastern provinces of Lebap and Mary adjoining the borders with Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.[37]

Pakistan

There are at least 1.2 million Tajiks living in Pakistan. Tajiks have historically, travelled to the region of Pakistan as technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis since ancient times up to and including the Mughal Empire; and many of them settled permanently. There are many shrines doted throughout Pakistan in honour of noted Tajik noblemen. In recent years, many Tajiks from Tajikistan have also settled in Pakistan due to the economic conditions prevalent in their home country, many have settled in the northern city of Ishkuman. In 1979, with the invasion by the Soviet Union of Afghanistan, a large number of Tajik refugees from that country came and settled throughout Pakistan.[38]. Exact numbers are difficult to ascertain as many do not have official identity cards or are counted as being Chitrali or Gilgiti in official census figures though many are still referred to as Madaklashti's.[38] There also large number of Tajiks from Afghanistan that have settled in Pakistan permanently.[39] Many Tajiks refugees from Tajikistan lived in Pakistan and some of them returned back to Tajikistan.[40]

Russia

The population of Tajiks in Russia is 120,000 according to the 2002 census, up from 38,000 in the last Soviet census of 1989.[8] Most Tajiks came to Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Physical characteristics

On the whole, Tajiks are a genetically eclectic population, displaying a wide range of phenotypes.[28] The typical Tajik has dark hair and eyes, and brunet-white to a light brown skin.[41] Lighter hair and eye colors can be found in mountain regions. In the 19th and 20th centuries, many Western anthropologists classified humans into a variety of races and subraces, unlike Persian speakers in Iran, who were classed in the Mediterranean race[42], Tajiks in Tajikistan were classed in the Alpine-Caucasian race.[41][43][44]

Culture

Language

Main articles: Tajik language, Persian language, and Dari (Eastern Persian)

The language of the Tajiks, as of their linguistic brethren in Iran, is Persian, also called Dari (derived from Darbārī, "[of/from the] royal courts", in the sense of "courtly language"). In Tajikistan, where Cyrillic script is used, it is called Tajiki language. Tajiki is the most archaic and pure form of the Persian language and contains much less loan Arabic words than the Persian dialect, spoken in Iran. Persian is an Indo-European language. Tajiks speak an eastern dialect of Persian, historically called Dari or also Parsi-e Darbari (see too the dialect of the Persian population of eastern Iran). Historically, it was considered the local dialect of Persian spoken by the Tajik/Persian ethnic group in Central Asia, from where it spread westward only to drive the Arabic language out as the mothertongue of ethnic Persians. In Afghanistan, unlike in Tajikistan, Tajiks continue to use the Perso-Arabic script, as well as in Iran. However, when the Soviet Union introduced the Latin script in 1928, and later the Cyrillic script, the Persian dialect of Tajikistan came to be considered a separate (Persian) language. Since the 19th century Tajik has been strongly influenced by the Russian and has incorporated many Russian language loan words. In Tajikistan, in the ordinary speech, also known as “Zaboni Kucha” (as opposed to literary speech known as “Zaboni Adabi”, which is used in schools, media etc.) many urban Tajiks prefer to use Russian loaned words instead of their literary Persian analogs.

The dialects of the Persians of Iran and of the Tajiks of central Asia have a common origin. This is underscored by the Tajiks' claim to such famous writers as Rudaki, Ferdowsi, Anwari, Rumi, other famous Persian poets. Russian is widely used in government and business in Tajikistan as well. Since Tajikistan gained independence, there has been a public debate about whether Tajiki should revert to the Perso-Arabic script.

Religion

Mazar i Sharif's Blue Mosque in northern Afghanistan.

Various scholars have recorded the Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and Aryan pre-Islamic heritage of the Tajik people. Early temples for fire worship have been found in Balkh and Bactria and excavations in present day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan show remnants of Zoroastrian fire temples.[45]

Today however, the great majority of Tajiks follow Sunni Islam, although small Twelver and Ismaili Shia minorities also exist in scattered pockets. Areas with large numbers of Shias include Herat, Bamyan, Badakhshan provinces in Afghanistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in Tajikistan, and Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County in China. Some of the famous Islamic scholars were from East-Iranian regions and therefore can arguably be viewed as Tajiks. They include Abu Hanifa, Imam Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Abu Dawood, Abu Mansur Maturidi, and many others.

According to a 2009 U.S. State Department release, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim, (approximately 95% Sunni and 3% Shia).[46] In Afghanistan, the great number of Tajiks adhere to Sunni Islam. Tajiks who follow Twelver Shiism are called Farsiwan. The community of Bukharian Jews in Central Asia speak a dialect of Persian. The Bukharian Jewish community in Uzbekistan is the largest remaining community of Central Asian Jews and resides primarily in Bukhara and Samarkand, while the Bukharaian Jews of Tajikistan live in Dushanbe and number only a few hundred.[47] From the 1970s to the 1990s the majority of these Tajik-speaking Jews emigrated to Israel and the United States in accordance with aliyah.

Tajikistan marked 2009 as the year to commemorate the Sunni Muslim jurist Abu Hanifa who was a Tajik Muslim schollar from Parwan province of Afghanistan, as the nation hosted an international symposium that drew scientific and religious leaders.[48] The construction of one of the largest mosques in the world, funded by Qatar, was announced in October 2009. The mosque is planned to be built in Dushanbe and construction is said to be completed by 2014.[49]

Recent developments

Cultural revival

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the civil war in Afghanistan both gave rise to a resurgence in Tajik nationalism across the region. Tajikistan in particular has been a focal point for this movement, and the government there has made a conscious effort to revive the legacy of the Samanid empire, the first Tajik-dominated state in the region after the Arab advance. For instance, the President of Tajikistan, Emomali Rahmon, dropped the Russian suffix "-ov" from his surname and directed others to adopt Tajik names when registering births.[50] According to a government announcement in October 2009, approximately 4000 Tajik nationals have dropped "ov" and "ev" from their surnames since the start of the year.[51]

In an interview to Iranian news media in May 2008, Tajikistan's deputy culture minister said Tajikistan would study the issue of switching its Tajik alphabet from Cyrillic to Persian script used in Iran and Afghanistan when the government feels that "the Tajik people became familiar with the Persian alphabet".[52] More recently, the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan seeks to have the nation's language referred to as "Tajiki-Farsi" rather than "Tajik." The proposal has drawn criticism from Russian media since the bill seeks to remove the Russian language as the mode of interethnic communication.[53] In 1989 the original name of the language (Farsi) was added to its official name in brackets. However, Rahmon's government renamed the language to simply 'Tajiki' in 1994. According to an Islamic Renaissance Party official, the Tajiks had referred to their language as "Farsi" before Sovietization. On October 2009, Tajikistan adopted the law that removes Russian as the "language for interethnic communication."[54]

Notes and references

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 10, 2010. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html#People. Retrieved 2010-05-26. 
  2. ↑ Dupree, L.. "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy". In Ehsan Yarshater. Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition ed.). United States: Columbia University. http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-iv-ethnography. Retrieved December 29, 2007. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Tajikistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 5, 2010. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ti.html#People. Retrieved 2010-05-26. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Uzbekistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 6, 2010. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uz.html#People. Retrieved 2010-05-26. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Richard Foltz, "The Tajiks of Uzbekistan", Central Asian Survey, 15(2), 213-216 (1996).
  6. ↑ There are 1,000,000 Persian-speakers native to Pakistan and 220,000 Tajik war-refugees from Afghanistan remain in Pakistan. Ethnologue.com's entry for Languages of Pakistan. Census of Afghans in Pakistan.
  7. ↑ UN Refugee Agency: about 50% of the total number of Afghan refugees in Iran in 2006 (920,000)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 2002 Russian census
  9. ↑ GTZ: Migration and development – Afghans in Germany: estimate for Tajiks based on total of 100,000 Afghans in Germany.
  10. ↑ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people from Afghanistan the United States is estimated as 80,414 (2005). Of this number, 65% are estimated Tajiks. "US demographic census". http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:501;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:501;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:501;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:501&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-redoLog=true&-charIterations=045&-geo_id=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 2008-01-23..  Robson, Barbara and Lipson, Juliene (2002) "Chapter 5(B)- The People: The Tajiks and Other Dari-Speaking Groups" The Afghans - their history and culture Cultural Orientation Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C., OCLC 56081073.
  11. ↑ Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan 1999-2007
  12. ↑ [1]
  13. ↑ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090 according to Canada's 2006 Census.. Tajiks make up an estimated 33% of the population of Afghanistan. The Tajik population in Canada is estimated form these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 C.E. Bosworth, B.G. Fragner (1999). "TĀDJĪK". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. 
  15. ↑ Afghan refugees in Iran and Pakistan
  16. ↑ M. Longworth Dames, G. Morgenstierne, and R. Ghirshman (1999). "AFGHĀNISTĀN". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. 
  17. ↑ Arlund, Pamela S. (2006). An Acoustic, Historical, And Developmental Analysis Of Sarikol Tajik Diphthongs. Ph.D Dissertation. The University of Texas at Arlington. p. 191. http://repositories.tdl.org/tdl/handle/10106/438. 
  18. ↑ Felmy, Sabine (1996). The voice of the nightingale: a personal account of the Wakhi culture in Hunza. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0195775996. http://books.google.com/books?id=gTtuAAAAMAAJ&q. 
  19. ↑ Richard Nelson Frye, "Persien: bis zum Einbruch des Islam" (original English title: "The Heritage Of Persia"), German version, tr. by Paul Baudisch, Kindler Verlag AG, Zürich 1964, pp. 485-498
  20. ↑ [[Richard Nelson Frye |Frye, Richard Nelson]] (1996). The heritage of Central Asia from antiquity to the Turkish expansion. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 1558761101. http://books.google.com/books?id=0RSXSu1x9hwC. 
  21. ↑ According to Professor Walter Bruno Henning, the term comes from Tat(Iranian)+Jik. Source: Dehkhoda dictionary under Tajik. Actual quote:استاد هنينگ تاجيک را ترکي ميداند مرکب از تا (= تات «ترک» + جيک «پسوند ترکي » جمعاً يعني تبعه ترک و اين کلمه را با «تازيک » و «تازي » (و طايي ) لغةً مرتبط نميداند - انتهي
  22. ↑ Lambton, Ann K.S. Landlord and Peasant in Persia, p.57. I.B.Tauris, 1991. ISBN 1850432937.
  23. ↑ Bergne, Paul. The Birth of Tajikistan, p. 4. I.B.Tauris, 2007. ISBN 1845112830.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 M.E. Subtelny, "The Symbiosis of Turk and Tajik" in B.F. Manz (ed.), Central Asia in Historical Perspective, (Boulder, Col. & Oxford), 1994, p. 48
  25. ↑ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1996). "Tajikistan: Tajik". Country Studies Series. Library of Congress. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-13606.html. Retrieved 2009-02-04. 
  26. ↑ Ali Shir Nava'i Muhakamat al-lughatain tr. & ed. Robert Devereaux (Leiden: Brill) 1966 p6
  27. ↑ C.E. Bosworth/B.G. Fragner, "Tādjīk", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition: "... In Islamic usage, [Tādjīk] eventually came to designate the Persians, as opposed to Turks [...] the oldest citation for it which Schraeder could find was in verses of Djalāl al-Dīn Rūmī ..."
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1997). "Afghanistan: Tajik". Country Studies Series. Library of Congress. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-39.html. Retrieved 2007-12-19. 
  29. ↑ Bellew, Henry Walter (1891) An inquiry into the ethnography of Afghanistan The Oriental Institute, Woking, Butler & Tanner, Frome, United Kingdom, page 126, OCLC 182913077
  30. ↑ Markham, C. R. (January 1879) "The Mountain Passes on the Afghan Frontier of British India" Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography (New Monthly Series) 1(1): pp. 38-62, p.48
  31. ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2006). "History and Foreign Policy: From Constructed Identities to "Ancient Hatreds" East of the Caspian". In Shaffer, Brenda. The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy. MIT Press. pp. 100–110. ISBN 0262693216. 
  32. ↑ Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan, Part 1: Ethnic minorities, Open Society Institute, table with number of Tajiks by province (Russian).
  33. ↑ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (February 23, 2000). "Uzbekistan". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 1999. U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/1999/369.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-19. 
  34. ↑ Rahim Masov, The History of the Clumsy Delimitation, Irfon Publ. House, Dushanbe, 1991 (Russian). English translation: The History of a National Catastrophe, transl. Iraj Bashiri, 1996.
  35. ↑ Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan, Part 1: Ethnic minorities, Open Society Institute, p. 195 (Russian).
  36. ↑ Svante E. Cornell, "Uzbekistan: A Regional Player in Eurasian Geopolitics?", European Security, vol. 20, no. 2, Summer 2000.
  37. ↑ Population census of Turkmenistan 1995, Vol. 1, State Statistical Committee of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat, 1996, pp. 75-100.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 http://websitepakistan.com/chitral/chitral6.htm
  39. ↑ The Afghani Tajik of Pakistan
  40. ↑ Long-time Tajik refugees return home from Pakistan
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Alpines, Turkestan and the Tajiks.
  42. ↑ The Irano-Afghan race, The Irano-Afghan race.
  43. ↑ Asiatic Alpines, Asiatic Alpines.
  44. ↑ Alpine Type, Alpine Type.
  45. ↑ Lena Jonson, Tajikistan in the New Central Asia: Geopolitics, Great Power Rivalry and Radical Islam (International Library of Central Asia Studies), page 21
  46. ↑ Background Note: Tajikistan
  47. ↑ J. Sloame, "Bukharan Jews", Jewish Virtual Library, (LINK)
  48. ↑ Today marks 18th year of Tajik independence and success
  49. ↑ Qatar paying for giant mosque in Tajikistan
  50. ↑ McDermott, Roger (2007-04-25). "Tajikistan restates its strategic partnership with Russia, while sending mixed signals". The Jamestown Foundation. http://jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2372123. Retrieved 2007-12-19. 
  51. ↑ Some 4,000 Tajiks opt to use the traditional version of their names this year
  52. ↑ "Tajikistan may consider using Persian script when the conditions are met", interview of Tajikistan's Deputy Culture Minister with Iranian News Agency, 2 May 2008.
  53. ↑ Tajik Islamic Party Seeks Tajiki-Farsi Designation.
  54. ↑ Tajikistan Drops Russian As Official Language

Further reading

External links